Dietary Requirements of Asian turtles

Preface

Zoo animal nutrition is a work field that still is largely unexplored. In recent years more and more is being discovered but very much still is to be researched. Research on nutrition of reptiles is a part that seems to be even less explored.

Diets fed to captive reptiles often are based solely on experience of keepers and hardly ever on facts about nutritional requirements of the animals in question. Many captive reptiles live lives that are significantly shorter than their life expectancy and nutrition related diseases are not uncommon.

Early 2002 thousands of Asian turtles of several different species, destined for a food market in Hong Kong were impounded. Several European and North American Zoos were asked to take in animals from this impoundment. Because the species concerned are relatively unknown their captive husbandry was also hardly explored.

The European Zoo Nutrition Centre (EZNC) was asked to include a dietary advice for the five species Cuora amboinensis, Heosemys grandis, Heosemys spinosa, Orlitia borneensis and Siebenrockiella crassicollis as very little was known about their captive maintenance. Due to time pressure this advice was conducted in a very short time. After several months the need rose for a more detailed and practical advice. To come to this advice a study is done by two students Animal Management (B.Sc. Course) at the Van Hall Institute, Leeuwarden, and The Netherlands. Due to limited time and the diversity of the turtle species mentioned before this study focuses only on the nutritional requirements of the two species said to be primarily herbivorous; Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa (Ernst & Barbour, 1989, Mertens, 1971). Data on the other three species and the way in which nutritional recommendations are accepted in zoos will be analysed in further studies.

This study will include a comparison between the nutritional values of the in-situ diet of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa conducted from literature, and the nutritional ex-situ values conducted from questionnaires and literature.

We hope that this report will aid in a better insight in the nutritional requirements of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa and give a nutritional advice that is practically applicable in the captive management of these species.


Martine Helmink
Siebren Kuperus
Leeuwarden, August 2002

Summary

In December 2001 several thousand Asian turtles were confiscated, all of these animals were destined for a food market in Hong Kong. In January 2002 a part of these animals was sent to Europe to be housed at zoos and private keepers and participate in captive breeding programs. At distribution of these animals the European Zoo Nutrition Centre (EZNC) gave an advice about the nutrition of the five most common species in the shipment; Cuora amboinensis, Heosemys grandis, Heosemys spinosa, Orlitia borneensis and iebenrockiella crassicollis. Because time was limited the advice given could not be as thoroughly researched as wishful. In contact with the Van Hall Institute in Leeuwarden it was decided to have the dietary requirements of these turtles further researched by Animal Management students in a final thesis project.

Because of time limitations only the two species known in literature as herbivorous have been included in this report; the Malayan box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) and the Spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa). Remaining species will be further researched in other projects led by EZNC. During the five months in which the project took place data was gathered on in-situ nutrition by means of a literature study. Found data was compared to the composition of diets fed by zoos and private keepers obtained by means of a questionnaire. With the comparison the base is made for an advice about captive feeding of the animals.

Reported nutrition of Cuora amboinensis shows average diets to be largely omnivorous in captivity, in some cases the part of the diet consisting of animal matter reaches nearly 100%, with no apparent ill effects. Because of reproductive success and successful long term maintenance observed in animals fed omnivorous diets it is carefully concluded that Cuora amboinensis is in fact highly omnivorous by nature, or for some reason highly tolerant to large amounts of animal matter in its diet. Reported nutrition of Heosemys spinosa in captivity closely meets the nutritional requirements found for herbivorous tortoises. Captive Heosemys spinosa are fed diets consisting largely of fruits. The preference for fruits possibly reflects the natural diet because the species by nature is a forest inhabitant. Seeds found in wild caught Heosemys spinosa back up this theory.
Supplements are used by most keepers, in several reported diets the amount of supplements fed could easily result in over dosage of several minerals and vitamins, some of which are known to be toxic when given in high amounts.
Energy intake calculated from reported diets generally is very low. According to questionnaire results Cuora amboinensis consume roughly 0,25 MJ GE per kg bodyweight per week. Literature values report the ME of inactive reptiles to be nearly twice as high. Heosemys spinosa shows an intake of roughly 0,65 MJ GE per kg bodyweight per week. This intake closely meets literature on energy demands. However, no indications have been found about the part of Gross Energy that can be utilised for Metabolic Energy requirements in turtles, or reptiles in general.

Diet recommendations are given based on findings in the report and consist primarily of most commonly fed food items. Some advice is given on feeding frequency and way of presenting the diet. Selective feeding should be prevented to make sure nutritional quality of the food consumed meets the animal’s requirements.

Acknowledgements

This research project was mainly supported by EZNC and the Van Hall Institute, which are both situated in the Netherlands. Therefore we like to thank Dr. Ir. W.L. Jansen, and J. Nijboer BSc from EZNC and T.R. Huisman BSc and B.B.H. van Wijk BSc MSc from the Van Hall Institute for their advice and general support. Thanks to Ms. S.Y. Colenbrander and Ms. F.A.J. van Vliet for their general support throughout the process.

Special thanks go out to the following persons for the great amount of work and effort contributing to this project:

P.P. van Dijk TRAFFIC Southeast Asia
M. Kerlen ESF Studbook keeper Cuora amboinensis
H. Zwartepoorte Reptile curator Rotterdam Zoo, President NSV and ESF

And the following institutions and private keepers for returning the questionnaire:

Bristol Zoo Gardens Cliffton United Kingdom
Brno Zoo Brno Czech Republic
Chester Zoo Upton by Chester United Kingdom
Lodz Zoo Lodz Poland
Moscow Zoo Moscow Russia
Perth Zoo South Perth Australia
Rotterdam Zoo Rotterdam The Netherlands
Zoo de Lisboa Lisboa Portugal
Zoologischer Garten Halle Halle Germany

M. Kerlen ESF studbook The Netherlands
R. Luybaert ESF studbook The Netherlands
G. Pol ESF studbook The Netherlands
T. Storcken ESF studbook The Netherlands
J. Stumpel ESF studbook The Netherlands
H. van der Voorde ESF studbook The Netherlands


This report could not have been completed without the help of each of the above.

Martine Helmink
Siebren Kuperus

List of abbreviations and symbols

BW
Bodyweight.

Ca
Calcium.

Ca:P
Calcium : Phosphorus ratio.

CITES
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna.

DM
Dry matter.

EAZA
European Association of Zoos and Aquaria.

ESF
European Studbook Foundation.

EZNC
European Zoo Nutrition Centre.

GE
Gross Energy.

IUCN
The world conservation union.

MBD
Metabolic Bone Disease.

NSV
‘Nederlandse Schildpadden Vereniging’ (Dutch Turtle/Tortoise Society).

P
Phosphorus.

USD
Ulcerative Shell Disease. Most commonly referred to as ‘shell disease’.

Introduction

On December 11h 2001 in China a large number of turtles was confiscated. These animals were destined for a market in Hong Kong where the approximately 10.000 individuals were to be sold for human consumption. Most of these animals belonged to the species Cuora amboinensis, Heosemys grandis, Heosemys spinosa, Orlitia borneensis and Siebenrockiella crassicollis. The animals were all taken from their wild habitat in the Indonesian region, they could not be placed back into the wild and were therefore placed in a Hong Kong animal rescue centre to await their further destiny. The international Turtle Survival Alliance requested the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) office to look for permanent housing for at least a part of the confiscated animals.

The curator of reptiles at Rotterdam Zoo, president of the Dutch turtle/tortoise society (NSV) and president of the European Studbook Foundation (ESF) Mr. Henk Zwartepoorte is one of the initiators of the impoundment and still largely involved with the well being of the animals.

On January 9th 2002 two representatives of Rotterdam Zoo, Holland; Mr. Zwartepoorte and veterinarian Mr. Schaftenaar travelled to Hong Kong to assess the health of the animals and select specimens fit enough to travel to Europe. About 1000 turtles were transported to Amsterdam airport on the 17th of January and in Holland they were checked over and if needed, treated for health problems before they were further distributed amongst European zoos and private studbook members (EAZA. 28-03-2002; pers. comm. H. Zwartepoorte).

The main focus of this study is on Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa. Since a lot of zoos had no experience in keeping these species, EZNC (the European Zoo Nutrition Centre) was asked to give a practical advice on how and what to feed the animals.
EZNC is a department of EAZA and was founded by Dr.Ir. W.L. Jansen, (Jagran BV), and J. Nijboer, BSc (Rotterdam Zoo). The primary targets of EZNC and other relevant information about the organisation is given in Appendix I.

A preliminary advice was given by EZNC to accompany the animals when they were distributed through Europe (see Appendix II). Some months after this advice was given out, in March 2002 the time had come to review the given advice and to thoroughly study the subject so that a practical and definite advice could be given. Apart from this there is also a need to know what participating zoos do with nutritional recommendations such as given at the distribution of these turtles. This study is performed to answer these questions and took place between March and September 2002.

The main goal of this study is to give a nutritional advice that meets the nutritional requirements of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa as close as possible and that will be practically applicable in an ex-situ situation.
In order to achieve this main goal this study will aim to answer the following main research question, further specified by the following sub-questions.

What diet composition in terms of nutrients and ingredients is best applicable in captive management of the species Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • What is the composition of the in-situ diet of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa in regards to ingredients and nutrients and how can the nutritional value of this diet be reproduced in an ex-situ situation?
  • What is the most successful ex-situ diet that is currently fed?
In order to give a nutritional advice it is necessary to know the nutritional requirements of the turtle species studied as accurate as possible. To gain insight in the natural diet composition and feeding behaviour the following question and sub-questions need to be answered:
  1. What is known about in-situ living >i>Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • What is the natural habitat of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • What is known about the digestive system of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • What is known about the natural diet and feeding behaviour of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
To gain insight in the current situation of ex-situ nutrition in these species the following question and sub-questions are answered:
  1. What is known about the way in which Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa are kept ex-situ?
  • What is the composition and nutritional value of the diets currently fed to Cuora amboinensis and in captivity?
  • Which diets are fed at institutions that have a good reproduction success?
  • What nutrition related diseases and deficiencies occur amongst Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa in captivity?

Description of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa

This chapter describes the taxonomical position of the species Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa. For both species a description of their natural habitat and distribution is included. An indication is given on the current number existing in the wild and their conservation status.
This paragraph aims to answer the fist two parts of sub-question one:
  • What is the natural habitat of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • What is known about the digestive system of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?

Methods

This chapter contains the methods that were used during this study. Why methods were chosen and the way they were applied on the matter researched. First a selection is made about the subjects researched. This selection is followed by an explanation about the way in which each research question will be studied. Finally the various groups of participants are differentiated.

In-situ diet

This chapter describes the digestive strategy and feeding behaviour of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa as well as those of comparable species. This chapter will answer the last part of sub-question one:
  • What is known about the natural diet and feeding behaviour of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?

Nutritional requirements

Ex-situ diet

This chapter describes the diets fed to Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa in captivity. Diets mentioned in literature about captive management and gathered data on diets fed by zoos and private keepers are given. With this information sub-question two will be answered:

  • What is known about the way in which Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa are kept ex-situ?

Discussion

During this study several points of discussion have risen, both in the literature search and in the processing of the questionnaire results. In order to indicate the accuracy and foundation of found results this chapter discusses the topics found

Conclusions

All data put together results in the following conclusions in reflection of the research questions asked.

In situ data

In what kind of ecosystem do Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa live?
  • Both Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa live primarily in areas with water bodies such as rivers and rice paddocks. Cuora amboinensis is very much aquatic whereas Heosemys spinosa, being a poor swimmer, appears to live a more terrestrial life.


What is known about the digestive system of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • Very little is known about the digestive system of turtles in general. Information available often refers to truly terrestrial tortoises or truly aquatic turtle species such as terrapins. The digestive systems of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa as far as known have not been described.


What is known about the natural diet and feeding behaviour of Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?
  • Very little is known about the composition of the natural diet of these turtles.
    Indications are made that both are largely herbivorous but contents are not clearly described in available publications.

  • Cuora amboinensis, being very much aquatic, is thought to rely heavily on aquatic food items. Reed and/or grass likely form some part of the natural diet as wild caught animals produced faeces containing fibrous matter of such vegetation. Animal matter is thought to be occasionally eaten..

  • Heosemys spinosa probably is bound very much too terrestrial vegetation, as it is a poor swimmer. Seed bearing plants are proven to be at least a part of the natural diet as wild caught animals produced faeces containing seeds of at least two different plant species.


Ex-situ data

What is the composition and nutritional value of the diets currently fed to Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa in captivity?
  • Cuora amboinensis is fed a largely omnivorous diet in captivity, Questionnaire results show an average of 52% of the weight of the diet as fed is animal matter. Also the most commonly fed food items are of animal origin.

  • Heosemys spinosa is fed mostly herbivorous in captivity, on average 5% of the weight of the diet as fed consists of animal matter. The overall diet of Heosemys spinosa in captivity consists mainly of fruits.

  • The average energy intake of Cuora amboinensis is 0,301 MJ GE /kg/week, ignoring extreme values indicates this being even lower, around 0,25 MJ GE/kg/week. According to questionnaire results energy intake of juveniles are significantly higher, this is about 1,75 MJ GE/kg/week.

  • Lots of different supplements are used in the nutrition of these species, composition of those supplements are often not findable.

  • Overall supplements are fairly easily used. In several diets, including the advice given by EZNC the levels of the potentially toxic vitamins as vitamin A, vitamin D3 and vitamin E are several times greater than advised. The same trend is found in Calcium and Phosphorous levels, also the result of too large amounts of supplements.


Which diets are fed at institutions that have a good reproduction success?
  • Reproduction in captivity proved to be rare, only one zoo breeds Cuora amboinensis. The diet fed to at this zoo is largely carnivorous.

  • No breeding results have been reported for Heosemys spinosa.


What nutrition related diseases and deficiencies occur amongst Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa in captivity?
  • No nutrition related diseases are reported to occur amongst Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa in captivity. It cannot be concluded that the diets fed to these two species must therefore meet requirements as some diets have only been fed since the institution using it received animals from the confiscation.


What diet composition in terms of nutrients and ingredients is best applicable in captive management of the species Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?

Cuora amboinensis
    Captive Cuora amboinensis are omnivorous by choice; this can be caused by the high digestibility of aquatic vegetation that makes up at least a large part of their natural diet. The diet fed to captive Cuora amboinensis is likely to most successful when containing a certain part of animal matter as is partly proven by the single reproducing zoo feeding largely carnivorous.


Heosemys spinosa
    As Heosemys spinosa lives a largely terrestrial life, its natural diet most likely consists of terrestrial vegetation. A captive diet can be based largely on knowledge about tortoises although this species appears to prefer a diet consisting largely of fruits. This preference can reflect the natural diet, as seeds that have been found in faeces may very well be residues of consumed fruits. Furthermore fruits are likely to make up a large part of the food available in the forests this species is often found in.


In conclusion it can be said that overall data on Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa and similar species gives a good picture on the rough outlines of their nutrition, but the actual dietary requirements of the species cannot be exactly determined. The diets that are currently fed to Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa appear to be sufficient for maintenance, as no serious deficiencies have been reported. However, because a large portion of the diets has not been used for a long time (only since specific keeper received the species from the impoundment) it cannot be concluded that all diets actually meet the nutritional requirement. An important aspect in the nutrition of these animals is the use of supplements, although needed for the correction of levels of important minerals and vitamins it should not be used too lightly as over dosage can also have serious effects. Finally breeding of these species is still a rarity, both in literature and in questioned zoos and keepers. The information gathered in the previous chapters and the conclusions here have been used to revise the advice given by EZNC in January 2002 and to give more insight in the poorly studied nutrition of these turtles. In the next chapter recommendations are given for optimal maintenance of these species.




Recommendations

This chapter describes the recommendations for the nutritional composition of the ex-situ diets for Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa by answering the sub-question:
  • · What diet composition in terms of nutrients and ingredients is best applicable in captive management of the species Cuora amboinensis and Heosemys spinosa?

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Appendices